Cisco Systems, Inc. Essay - 2877 Words

Cisco Systems, Inc. was incorporated in 1984 in California’s Silicon Valley. The idea for this company came about when two Stanford University employees, a husband and wife, tried to figure out a way to stay connected throughout the day and had to overcome the technological inability to send e-mail from one building to another (â€Å"Cisco overview,† n.d.). The couple designed a multi-protocol router to communicate across campus (â€Å"Cisco overview,† n.d.). The company’s primary goal was to transform the way that people connected. Since its inception, the company has expanded its operations on a global scale, employs approximately 71,825 employees and identifies itself as â€Å"The Human Network† (Cisco Systems, Inc., 2011). A strategic audit of†¦show more content†¦Furthermore, the company’s net income decreased 16% from 2010 to $6,490,000. Therefore, Cisco was not as profitable as they were the year prior. Impressively, Cisco has still outperformed its two main competitors, Alcatel-Lucent and Juniper Networks, Inc., in the Networking and Communication Devices industry (â€Å"Competitors,† n.d.). Cisco generates the most revenue of its competitors, but spends the least on RD as a percentage of revenue (â€Å"Competitors,† n.d.).Additionally, Cisco has the highest operating profit margin amongst its competitors. Operating profit margin, â€Å"a measure of the company’s operating effectiveness,† can be calculated using figures form the income statement (Keown, Martin, Petty, 2011, p. 94). Cisco’s operating profit margin is 22.9% which means that for every dollar of sales, Cisco earned 22.9 cents in operating income. This number compared to the 18.8% operating profit margin of Juniper shows that Cisco’s management is better than Juniper’s at managing operations (Keown, Martin, Petty, 2011). Cisco’s financial performance indicates that they are an industr y leader. Cisco’s current mission is to â€Å"shape the future of the Internet by creating unprecedented value and opportunity for our customers, employees, investors, and ecosystem partners† (â€Å"Frequently,† n.d.). According to the company’s annual report, their five foundational and strategic priorities include leadership in coreShow MoreRelatedCisco Systems, Inc.548 Words   |  2 PagesCisco Systems, Inc. is an IT company that specifies in the sale of networking and communication items and solutions. It is a business-to-business company where they sell items primarily to large enterprises and telecommunications companies while also marketing items designed for small businesses and consumers such as routers, modems, and home network management software. The items and solutions target to transport data, voice and video interaction within buildings and institutions as well as aroundRead MoreCisco Systems Inc3941 Words   |  16 PagesCisco Systems I nc. INDIVIDUAL PROJECT REPORT Date Submitted November, 20, 2013 Table of Contents SUMMARY DESCRIPTION OF BUSINESS 0 Products and Services Offeered 0 Global Markets Currently Served 0 Corporate Structure and Leadership Resources and Competitive Position 0 COMPANYS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT 0 Competitors in Top Five Countries Served 0 Marktst For Company and Rivals 0 Key Success Factors for Their Market 0 COMPANYS COMPETITIVE POSITION 0 Competitive PositionRead MoreCisco Systems Inc Implementing Erp1863 Words   |  8 PagesJohn Morgridge joined Cisco as a CEO in the year 1988. The very first thing he notices in the organization was the lack of professional management team. Initiation for professional management team was the first kick off for the organization. Professional management is considered to be the foundation of any big organization and Cisco started with this thereby sticking with the fundamentals. The professional team clashed with the founders ending up them leaving the company and giving a free hand toRead MoreCisco Systems Inc. And The Leadership Of John T. Chambers1299 Words   |  6 PagesCisco Systems Inc. and the Leadership of John T. Chambers As Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of Cisco Systems Incorporated, the leadership of John Thomas Chambers solidified Cisco as the world’s premiere data networking company. Cisco Systems Incorporated is an international technology corporation founded in 1984 and headquartered in San Jose, California. Cisco designs, manufactures and sells networking equipment worldwide and is the largest networking company in the world. TheRead MoreCisco Systems, Inc.: Collaborating on New Product Introduction12030 Words   |  49 PagesCASE: GS-66 DATE: 06/05/09 CISCO SYSTEMS, INC.: COLLABORATING ON NEW PRODUCT INTRODUCTION On November 13, 2007, more than 100 employees of Cisco Systems, Inc. assembled in classic Cisco fashion: they dialed in from multiple locations around the world for an important meeting. The purpose of the gathering was to get the green light from senior management to manufacture a new high-end router that would make the giant networking company more competitive in an age of surging Internet trafficRead MoreHow Technology Affect Business Especially For Cisco Systems Inc.1321 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract Cisco Systems Inc. is a public traded corporation listed on Nasdaq as CSCO. Cisco Systems Inc. is the worldwide leading supplier of computer networking products, it offers communication systems and services, product for companies. Cisco sells routers, switches, internet services devises and other communication and internet related services to entity. The purpose of this paper is to explain how technology affect business especially for Cisco Systems Inc. First, the paper has a brief introductionRead MoreCisco Systems, Inc.1038 Words   |  5 PagesCompany Overview Cisco Systems, Inc. was founded in 1984 and is headquartered in San Jose, California. According to their 2014 Form 10-K Annual Report, Cisco â€Å"designs, manufactures, and sells Internet Protocol (IP) based networking products and services related to the communications and information technology industry.† Their main objective is help their customers improve growth and productivity while reducing costs and risks by connecting people, processes, data, and products through strategicRead MoreCisco Systems, Inc.1431 Words   |  6 PagesCisco Systems, Inc. A potential competitive disadvantage for Cisco is supply chain issues. Supply chain issues such as delays in order fulfillment can affect Cisco’s business because the company is significantly dependent on suppliers and contract manufacturers for certain components. Due to its outsourced manufacturing strategy, Cisco has limited control over the delivery schedules and has suffered from component shortages as a result of manufacturing process issues. Additionally, the earthquakesRead MoreCisco Systems Inc. : Analysis998 Words   |  4 PagesCISCO SYSTEMS INC., is one of the worldwide leaders in networking for the Internet, headquartered in San Jose, California, that manufactures, designs and sells networking equipment. Their unique hardware and software designs are used for connecting computers and PC networks, so the populace have trouble-free access to information. The company was originated by two computer scientists in 1984 from Stanford University in quest of a simpler wa y to connect different types of computer systems. They distributedRead MoreAnalysis Of Cisco System, Inc.2104 Words   |  9 PagesIntroduction Cisco System, Inc. a company which designs manufactures and sells network equipment or computer networking devices mainly Routers, Company Headquartered in San Jose, California, United states of America. Initially found by two Stanford Computer scientists in 1984. A trifold increase in usage of internet technologies during early 90’s made cisco to dominate the market crossing hundred million mark and to become one among the fortune 500, which made industrialist to foresee the

Essay about Solution for the IT Security Banking and Ethics

Solution for the IT security banking and ethics There are several solutions for the Islamic banking, IT security and ethics in where their practices should not contradict with the teaching of al-Quran but at the same time implement the technology to improve banking service to the society. Below are the solutions that might be suitable for the banking services to implement Islamic ethics in the business and their security perspectives. What you should do and don’t during practices ethics and security in banking: ï‚ § Do not use Other Peoples Computer Resources without Authorization. ï‚ § Shalt Think About The Social Consequences Of The Program You Are Writing Or The System You Are Designing. ï‚ § Shalt Not Interfere With Other Peoples Computer†¦show more content†¦Ã¯â€š § DO NOT give out your password to anyone. ï‚ § DO back-up your data on disks, USB Storage or CDs regularly. ï‚ § Be accountable for your IT assets and data ï‚ § Use good judgement to protect your data ï‚ § Protect your laptop during the trip ï‚ § Ensure sensitive information on the computer screen is not visible to others ï‚ § Protect your user ID and password ï‚ § Avoid using the same password at multiple Web sites. ï‚ § Never use the password you’ve picked for your email account at any online site: If you do, and an e-commerce site you are registered at gets hacked, there’s a good chance someone will be reading your email soon. Literature review There are several issues related to the IT security, banking, and the ethics while handling the IT computing related. IT has brought a huge change to the humanity state whether in term of how the information being stored, the security of how the information being protected and how the ethics while handling the information. One of the major problems with traditional storage networks is that IT managements have to either under- or over-estimate the organization’s needs, leaving either gaps or too much storage while cloud storage involves storing your data in an off-site data centre run and maintained by a third-party cloud provider. The major benefit of cloud storage over traditional storage is the capability to access your data anyplace in the world.Show MoreRelatedAnnotated Bibliography On Online Banking Deception1617 Words   |  7 Pagesabout online banking deception. â€Å"Online banking fraud† is about committing theft or fraud by means of the features of Internet to illegitimately confiscate cash from, or move it to, some other bank account. During the past decades, most of the problems in the field of cyber-security and more specifically online banking fraud have been investigated from technological perspective. That is, these problems were considered solely as technical problems which required technical security solutions. However,Read MoreThe Impact Of Blochchain1068 Words   |  5 Pagesthe use cases that blockchain can introduce to an already enhanced banking system that has been around for centuries one might ask themselves. For one the technology can improved the security of its client data and the manipulation of their assets. As of today the banking system in exclusive and only accessible to those societies with a high GDP. It is also usually the case that countries with low GDP also have lowest securities for their banks and hence there are actively under malicious attacksRead MoreSample Resume : Cash For Cash Essay1665 Words    |  7 Pagesinformation. V. Mass Collections Mass collection solutions are mainly suited for customers that have large volume of deposit requirement and these include utility companies such as ZESA as well as revenue authorities like ZIMRA. To smoothen these collection solutions Ecobank provide data enrichment, with customer defined fields captured with each deposit made. For example details such as distinctive reference number are captured. The advantage of this solution is that it can be interfaced to a corporate’sRead MoreRepercussions of the Global Economic Crisis: Analysis of Inside Job1873 Words   |  7 Pagescredit market, banking and ultimately all sectors of the global economy. The culprits for the situation created are still analyzed and the complete solutions to revitalization have yet to be found. Nevertheless, despite the ongoing investigation, it is commonly accepted that the primary cause of the crisis was represented by an inadequate fiscal policy, which allowed Wall Street players to increase the debt of the population, to inflate house prices and to swap mortgages and securities. AdditionallyRead MoreAudit Methodology For A Audit Essay1135 Words   |  5 Pagesdetermine the sort of audit team that will be assembled. The team selected will be best placed to handle all obstacles and perform a detailed audit of the system as accurately as possible. Apart from this the team of experts will go through all the banking operations, operations, policies, practices and the information system and internal controls. The system to be audited is fairly big as it is an ERP and performs various operations like financial transactions, customer relationship management, riskRead MoreAnalysis Of Barclays Bank And Its Effect On User Usage And Efficiency2417 Words   |  10 PagesAbstract Security in information technology is a paramount feature which impacts on user usage and efficiency. Security in organization such as Barclays bank is crucial since it does protect the details of the clients as well assets of the bank. Services such as electronic funds transfer, automated teller machines and mobile banking have brought new security challenges. Security measures are an attempt to reduce risk as well losses due to muggings, unauthorized users, insider manipulation, fraudulentRead MoreThe Ethics For Ict Professional1685 Words   |  7 PagesCase Study: ABC Company is a banking company with hundreds of staffs working on different departments. This Company has IT department which maintains, monitors and supports all the IT related issues to the employee working there. IT Department of this company regularly monitors the internet traffic and maintains the logs of the visited websites to ensure and control the staffs from browsing any unwanted materials. Similarly IT Department is also allowed to check the private mail of the staffs toRead MoreAnalysis Of Morgan Security Audit Pricewaterhouse Cooper1095 Words   |  5 PagesJ.P.Morgan security audit Pricewaterhouse Cooper INTRO According to Institute of Global Ethics â€Å"Ethics in its broader sense, deals with human conduct in relation to what is morally good and bad, right and wrong. It is the application of values to decision making. These values include honesty, fairness, responsibility, respect and compassion† (He 2017) therefore they are principles of right conduct. Unlike morals which are the principles of right/improper conduct depends person to person. BODY Read MoreProblems, Solutions and Prospects for the Development and Progress of the Banking Industry in Nigeria1209 Words   |  5 PagesAHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY ZARIA FACULTY OF ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT OF ACCOUNTING AUDIT MANAGEMENT ACCT 707 USENI YUSUF ONWUDE MBF/ADMIN/0483/2009-2010 [pic][pic]INTRODUCTION SOLUDO.C (2004: 4) The Nigerian banking system has undergone remarkable changes over the years, in terms of the number of institutions, ownership structure, as well as depth and breadth of operations. These changes have been influenced largely by challenges posed by deregulation of theRead MoreThe Moral Dilemmas Of Mr. Oliver913 Words   |  4 Pagespersonal gain and financial security against that of the good of the public interest is a lengthy and difficult process, however I believe that anyone who seriously examines the matter is compelled to ultimately arrive at a conclusion of moral duty to society. Given Robert Wallace s circumstances, he should undoubtedly report his findings of the possible unscrupulous financial activities of Mr. Oliver Bigelow to the Indiana Department of Financial Institutions who oversees banking in the state. Robert

Mountains A road to recreation Free Essays

â€Å"Chasing angels or feeling demons, go to mountains† said by Jeffrey Rasley. The word recreation means refreshment of health or spirits by relaxation and enjoyment. In other sense refreshment of one’s mind and body. We will write a custom essay sample on Mountains: A road to recreation or any similar topic only for you Order Now Pakistan is a God gifted land. There are many breathtaking landscapes present in it. The land of Pakistan is known as the land of adventures and nature. Beside, Murree, there are many hill stations and resorts such as in the places like Swat, Kalam , and Hunza Vellay. So, I agree with the statement that mountains are use for recreation. Firstly, for recreational purpose, mountains are use for hiking. Mountaineering was introduced in eighteen century by intellectuals such as scientists and philosophers. They climb on mountains for research purposes. At that time â€Å"Chamonix† which is located in France, became the attracting point for many hikers. Especially Mount Blanc, which had an elevation of about sixteen thousand feet. After half of the eighteen century, British hikers started to hike on Swiss mountains with their guides. These guides were from different countries such as from Switzerland, Italy, and France. After Alpes, in late nineteen century, hikers started to hike on Andes mountain ranges which are located in South America. By the advent of twentieth century, hikers came to hike Himalayas which are also located in Pakistan. In Himalayas ranges, the highest peak is K2 which has an elevation of about twenty eight thousand feet. Now in twenty first century, hiking become very common in our society. First of all, some people hike on mountain as for fun. But after words they chose mountain hiking as their profession. For instance Conrad Kein is one of them. Bachendri Pal who is first Indian women to climb on Mount Everast. She conquered Mount Everst peak on twenty third May, 1984. Secondly, for recreational purpose, people use to prefer mountainous areas for visiting. People also used to come on mountains for camping. In Pakistan, Swat valley is known as â€Å"Mini Switzerland†. Where everywhere, you will see greenry. This valley is also more fertile as compared to other northern areas of Pakistan. So, for attracting people, government has built different places for recreation, such as museum, golf course, and parks. Local people also made restaurants in hilly areas. In swat museum, you can see the things of second century BC. Especially, the crafts of Mauryan Emporer. In Murree , there is Ayubia park which is named after our first military dictator General Ayub Khan. In that park, there is chair lift, that’s why it is very famous. Thirdly, the people of plain areas used to go to mountainous areas for relaxing their selves. So, in Murree, you will hardly find any place in restaurants especially in summer vocations. In that period of three to four months, some hotel owners are not good enough because they charge more. So, in that response Kalam Hotel Association General Sectery Rahuet Din Siddique said in a statement that â€Å" his union would take action against those hotel owners who had been fleecing visitors by demanding high prices†. But this is the dilemma of our people that we always think that how to flatter others. Fourthly, in Pakistan, there are also worth seeing places such as Kashmir which is a mountainous area and is known as â€Å"Paradise†. The Great Mughal King Shah Jahan said â€Å"If there is heaven anywhere on earth that is the Kashmir†. So, he was the first to say it as a Heaven. Concordia is known as the ‘paradise of mountaineers’ which is present in north of Pakistan and is close to China boarder. Concordia is a chain of fourteen mountains and highest mountain is K2 which has an elevation of about eighty six hundred meter and is also known as world’s second highest mountain. The locals named K2 as â€Å"Choghori†. The name Concordia derived from the Latin word which means ‘harmony with the heart’. People used to visit in these places for recreation. Due to the poor securitization of Pakistan, people are scared to visit these places. In recent incidence in which eleven mountaineers are killed by terrorist. One mountaineer was left alive in the incidence. She said that she was not scared and she is full determined for expedition of Nanga Parbat. And she said in a statement that she will come next year. In response to that statement , the ACP President Col Manzoor Hussain said â€Å" we apologize to you that our government failed to protect the lives of your team members†. Although, the indigenous of mountainous areas are known for their hospitality. Visitors are welcomed by these people open heartedly. But due to security lapse, people are scared and they want protection from government. So, government should take action against terrorists. In short, mountaineering is very famous all over the world. People use to go on mountain areas throughout the whole year. In summer season, people go on mountains for recreation in order to see the beauty and nature. This time the temperature is moderate. In winter season, people use to go on mountainous areas for skating etc. But unfortunately, people are refused to go on these areas just because of poor security. As, Pakistan is fighting war on terror, so , people are scared to go. At last, if we go through the context of Pakistan, many tourist from all over the globe attract towards the scenic beauty of these mountain. K2 is famous in this regard. How to cite Mountains: A road to recreation, Papers

Pride and Prejudice and Persuasion Summary free essay sample

Jane Austen delicately provides an insight into life and social habits at the time; exploring the themes of love, class and money and in doing so creating a realistic and meaningful account; combining what is often comic irony, with steadfast morals. Both novels ardently focus on pressing social concerns of the time, with Austen portraying through each story; the section in society in which she is most familiar with. Yet Austen creates for readers an understanding that does not dwell specifically on politics or what can be described as ‘majorly’ influential factors of the time, e. g. – the ongoing war. By bypassing such explicit attempts at explaining the situation in Britain at the time, and by refusing to use a major incident and extraordinary characters as a catalyst for the action occurring in her novels; Austen portrays a more modest, personal and accessible account. By centralising her story around small groups or social circles; she meticulously examines different parts of society; through authorial viewpoints. Austen’s morals or ideals; represented mainly through the characters of Elizabeth Bennett and Anne Elliot, are therefore much easier to comprehend or evaluate because, in such a small scale, the story becomes universal and identifiable to readers. It can be acknowledged that the basis of ‘Pride and Prejudice’s story reflects on the prejudices and ill-judgements made by members of the public; regardless of their social disposition, in a somewhat light hearted fashion, whilst ‘Persuasion’ focuses more darkly and intensely on the consequence of such ignorant opinions and judgements cast without conclusive reason. Similarities between the two books in relation to plot, character and theme are evident. Both novels analyse a range of hurtful truths, common beliefs and stereotypes that are universal, with ‘Persuasion’, perhaps more seriously, detailing the consequences of intelligence clouded by vanity and self-interest: â€Å"Vanity was the beginning and the end of Sir Walter Elliot’s character. Vanity of person and of situation. † ‘Pride and Prejudice’, however, more light-heartedly and ironically mimics the inflated ego’s of those of fortune and rank also: Lady Catherine will not think the worse of you for being simply dressed. She likes to have the distinction of wealth preserved. † â€Å"[Miss Bingley] would have difficulty in believing that a man who lived by trade, and within view of his own warehouses, could have been so well bred and agreeable. † The characters in both books are also universal. Their personalities harbour simila rities between each book and additionally, have qualities that readers can relate to, as they are still present, to an extent, in society today. Most, if not all characters; from the comical, perpetually ignorant and flippant Mrs Bennett and Mary Musgrove: â€Å"a woman of mean understanding, little information and quick temper. When she was disconcerted; she fancied herself nervous. † (Mrs Bennett) to the austere, sombre; yet equally comical Mr Collins; â€Å"the respect he held for high rank, his veneration for her as a patroness†¦he was a mixture of pride and obsequiousness, self-importance and humility. † can be described as ‘caricatures’ – personifying and bringing to life society’s beliefs, opinions and prejudices of certain people; in an exaggerated form. Austen’s subtle narrative approach allows readers to collect their own thoughts, and does not subjectively enforce conclusions on readers. Instead, she hints at her ideas; persuading readers to come to their own judgements; which, irrefutably, end up matching hers consequently. By adopting a third person narrative voice Austen is able to distance herself from characters, not allowing the progress and development of characters within the novel to be concealed by constant and intense surveillance. Her narrative voice makes t more credible that her story has been created through her own observation of society; and the third person narrative voice makes it easier for readers to discern their own opinions through viewpoint of a distant, unrelated objector. In addition; Austen manipulates and exploits characters dialogue and conversation to expose significant developments within the novel – rather than intimate description. E. g. – the dubious, mysterious character of Mr Wickam is proved to be in question by Elizabeth’s auntie, in ‘Pride and Prejudice’. In ‘Persuasion’; Mr Wentworth’s initial opinion on Anne; after meeting her again after 8 years; is cruelly exposed by Mary; during conversation: â€Å"he finds you most altered†¦he’d hardly recognise you† In both novels; the main themes of class; love; wealth and money are examined. Throughout both; Austen explicitly demonstrates the importance; yet unfairness of financial stability in life. Wealth and social status underpin most of the action in both books; and it becomes obvious that the sum of money one owns, acts as a basis for judging their character. For example; without any other information about his character, nature of personality; Mrs Bennett immediately addresses Mr Bingley and Mr Darcy as potential husbands for her daughters: â€Å"A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls. † Alternatively; in ‘Persuasion’, the sum of money owned by Mr Wentworth is not substantial enough to warrant Anne’s marriage to him; and therefore he is condemned, and cast aside by her family. Anne is left in an unenviable position of choosing between her family and her love. Ultimately, she naively chooses her family and therefore sacrifices her happiness. Another similarity between the novels is the ideal of love and marriage. In ‘Pride and Prejudice’ and in ‘Persuasion’ marriages are encouraged for advantage and individual gain, rather than out of love. For example; in ‘Pride and Prejudice’; Mr and Mrs Bennett’s relationship is fallacious, as is Mr Collins and Charlotte Lucas’; as is Mr Wickham and Lydia’s; and in ‘Persuasion’ Mr Elliot’s intentions for Anne also revolve around the idea of social status and wealth. However, this does not stick with the two main heroines, who unconventionally belief in something much deeper than a love made with financial intent. They refute the idea that: â€Å"Happiness in a marriage is a matter of chance† (Charlotte Lucas) Lizzy appears to be un-yielding to the idea of love, perhaps, because of her experience within her loveless domestic background of her parents unhappy and unstable relationship; whilst Anne revolves her life around the fact that she stupidly rejected her one true love; and thus becomes reserved in believing that she has simply passed her chance at happiness by. The ideal mentioned above; is happily contradicted also by the minor character of Jane Bennett whose partnership with Mr Bingley in ‘Pride and Prejudice’ subsists past obstacles, over pride, social status and even after a long period of separation. It is clear to readers that their love is rare and real. Jane’s exclamation after the announcement of their engagement challenges the conventional theory that marriage is made out of convenience: â€Å"Tis too much! †, â€Å"by far too much. I do not deserve it. Oh! Why is not everybody as happy. † The heroines of the story also; eventually; in face of adversary – find true love. Evoking from readers genuine emotion, understanding and acceptance that love cannot be bought or faked. â€Å"they were gradually acquainted, and when acquainted, rapidly and deeply in love. † (Anne and Wentworth) Also, readers truly appreciate how deserving the heroines are of love; and how admirable they’re characters are, whilst having their faults also. Both characters, by the end of the novel; seem to have gone through a period or journey of self-examination and development; in which they scrutinise both their behaviour and personality in retrospect and thus; through their knowledge, are able to mature and truly become satisfied and content within themselves. To conclude; though the mood and tone of the novels differ slightly; Austen creates an affiliation between both ‘Pride and Prejudice’ and ‘Persuasion’, in terms of characterisation, themes and even plot. Austen is able to fully explore the concept of providing both a subjective and objective observer to the characters and action taking place in both novels; and in doing so allows readers to gain a deeper comprehension and more intense alliance with the central themes and characters. Readers are able to cast their own assertions on the novels; whilst Austen subtly hints at the conclusions; yet never enforces them. The themes of the two novels are undoubtedly intertwined and complex; creating the foundations from which further analyse of plot can be gained and an understanding of realistic society at the time can also be discerned.

Sydney Opera House Project management

The construction of Sydney Opera House, which started in 1957, is one of the projects that I got a chance to research on while in college. It is a perfect example showing the impact of poor project planning on an organization.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sydney Opera House Project management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More During this period (1997), planners had estimated that the project would last 6 years, and would cost $7 million (Murray, 2013). Unfortunately, the project’s triple constrain priorities were not clear and were changed on several occasions before the project got completed. The change of one priority automatically affected the others. One of the initial changes was done on the layout of the building. During the construction, the multipurpose opera hall’s design was changed. This affected the interior layout. This confirms the effect of changing a priority. This further caused o ther unprecedented changes such as the introduction of a cinema, theatre, and library. The consequence of these changes is that the project was completed in ten years later, and ended up costing $102 million. It took more time and costs than what the planners expected. The scope of the project ought to be clearly defined before the project. This could have helped the planners avoid changing priorities (Schwalbe, 2010). Moreover, they could have saved on costs and time, among other things. Project attributes have several dimensions that must be managed simultaneously. They include people involved in the implementation of projects, communication and the level of collaboration between them, time available, and the type and level of knowledge and skills needed to complete certain tasks. They also include management of risks, coordination of sub-projects or project activities, and organizational and cultural changes involved in the project (Mazura, Pisarskia, Chang, Ashkanasy, 2013). Pr ojects come in different sizes and shapes. Their attributes are used in enhancing the definition of a project. Firstly, every project must have a unique purpose. It should have a clearly defined objective. In reference to the aforementioned case, an example of this objective is to build an opera house. This attribute helps in the analysis of the success of the project. It also determines the most relevant projects (Meredith Mantel, 2011). Secondly, a project is temporary. This implies that it is not done in an abstract. It must have a clearly defined start and an end. In the aforementioned project for instance, the Opera house was to be constructed in a period of six years. Thirdly, the development of a project is done through a progressive elaboration (Brown Hyer, 2010).Advertising Looking for essay on project management? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As earlier mentioned, a project has a clear objective, but due to its c omplex nature, the definition may be too broad. The details of a project become clear as time passes. This is confirmed in the case of Opera house, whereby the objective was time-based (build the house in six years). Projects keep on being updated in order to reflect how the interior should be designed (Gido Clements, 2012). A project can lead to the creation of many projects in an event where the planned priorities are changed or constrained. The constrained priorities include time, scope, and cost. The scope of the project is concerned with what the entire project entails, as well as the expected results (Hartmann Brisko, 2010). It also involves determining project justifications, tasks, and accomplishment dates. Changing the scope leads to the emergence of multiple projects. For instance, in the first place, the scope of the project discussed earlier is to build an opera house. However, the scope is changed to building a concert hall. This further encourages the introduction of a new project or sub-project, concerned with building the concert hall. Secondly, the time factor is an important constrained priority. Changes made to this factor may lead to multiple projects. For example, if the priority in the first place was to build an opera house in two years, and the time is changed to one year, it is obvious that a new project would be created to help achieve goals. The cost and the budget allocated to the implementation of a project are constant. However, changes can be employed in the budget in order to help implement the initial project. Project conception is the first phase of project management and involves examination of an idea with regard to the benefits it brings to the organization. A decision is then made as to whether the idea is feasible. The second phase is project definition and planning. It involves outlining the work to be done in the project. The project plan is then written down outlining a number of things. These include a budget, a sch edule, and the resources needed to implement the idea (Fewings, 2013). Project launch or execution is the third phase. It involves the distribution of resources to the project teams. The project teams are also made aware of their responsibilities in the implementation of the project. The fourth phase is the project performance and control. In this phase, project managers compare the progress made against the pre-drafted plan. Depending on the progress made, they adjust the pre-set schedules or develop mechanisms aimed at streamlining the project with the project plan (Brown Hyer, 2010). The last phase is the project close. In this phase, clients approve completed project tasks. The project managers then conduct an evaluation of its successes and failures (Kerzner, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sydney Opera House Project management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Brown, K. A., Hyer, N. L. ( 2010). Managing projects: A team-based approach. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Fewings, P. (2013). Construction Project Management: an integrated approach. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Gido, J., Clements, J. P. (2012). Successful project management. Australia: South-Western Cengage Learning. Hartmann, S., Briskorn, D. (2010). A survey of variants and extensions of the resource-constrained project scheduling problem. European Journal of Operational Research. 207(1), 1-14. Kerzner, H. R., Learning, I. I. (2013). Project management – best practices: Achieving global excellence. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley. Mazura, A., Pisarskia, A., Chang, A., Ashkanasy, N. M. (2013). Rating defence major project success: The role of personal attributes and stakeholder relationships. International Journal of Project Management. 32(1), 1-23. Meredith, J. R., Mantel, S. J. (2012). Project management: A managerial approach. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Advertising Looking for essay on project management? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Murray, P. (2013). The saga of Sydney Opera House: the dramatic story of the design and construction of the icon of modern Australia. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Schwalbe, K. (2010). Information technology Project Management. Boston, MA: Course Technology/Cengage Learning. This essay on Sydney Opera House Project management was written and submitted by user Bradley Compton to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Bipolymers- Cyclodextrin essays

Bipolymers- Cyclodextrin essays 9.221 Recent Development and use of.... Q) Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties. Cyclodextrin was first discovered by Villiers in 1891 although back then he called it cellulosine. Later Shardinger discovered that there were actually three types of Cyclodextrins; alpha, beta and gamma. By the mid 1970s all these different complexes could be chemically characterized. We have found that Cyclodextrin can be synthesized in nature via an enzyme called, cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase or enzyme CGTase for short. Below is a picture of CGTase: The catalytic site is the area in which it brings together the many sugars to form the actual cyclodextrin. This enzyme can be naturally found in some organisms including Bacillus Macerans. Further below is a picture of cyclodextrin, it is made up of seven glucose rings and are stuck together through the CGTase enzyme. With cyclodextrins being around for over 100 years why is it that we have recently just been able to apply them to many uses, some reasons are that there have been very high costs in developing the cyclodextrins, the availability of the chemical and enzyme and the general conception that these cyclodextrins were toxic. Yet only recently have scientists been able to develop cheap effective ways of the production of cyclodextrin and the detoxifying of these cyclodextrins which have provided many uses for them throughout our life. The first major use for these cyclodextrins is in the pharmaceuticals industry which is now heavily using cyclodextrin in many of their drugs. The reason why they use cyclodextrin is because it: -Enhance the drugs poor aqueous solubility ...

Why having a 4 year Business Degree is important in Running a business Essay

Why having a 4 year Business Degree is important in Running a business - Essay Example Companies are starting to make out that states halfway in the region of the world are feasible and frequently untapped consumer bases. Businesses are employing the internet and additional technologies to attract their consumers and frequently expand their neighborhood processes into worldwide ones (Pollard et al, 2004). Specialized administration, management and guidance capabilities are desirable to guide corporations and businesses that carry out business on a worldwide scale. Worldwide business managers have need of powerful communication knowledge (frequently they have to be bi- or multilingual), an indebted of the global financial system, that would be recognizable by computer and infrastructure technology, recognize the dissimilarity among societies that would able to be a stumbling mass for building global businesses. Mostly managers of worldwide businesses hold a 4 Year business degree or equivalents master of business administration degree by means of a focus on global trade or business (Stewart et al, 2001). A four year business degree offers an extensive experience to all the vital elements that create an organization task well. It does not offer the specialization that additional targeted degrees get done (such as accounting or finance), however is helpful in its generalist approach of providing knowledge. We obtain an indication of a lot of functions in the business world and foundation our studies on how these tasks work together (Pollard et al, 2004). Some business degrees engage working by statistics and arithmetical analysis, so we should be calm with math. We should as well have the potential to see the huge picture when it approaches to organizational arrangement, taking into deliberation the features of the group, bearing in mind the unprocessed resources or uneven data, and developing strategy to progress projects ahead.

The effects of the US 1965 Immigration Act Introduction and Annotated Essay

The effects of the US 1965 Immigration Act Introduction and Annotated bibliography - Essay Example To accomplish this it restricted immigration on the basis of how many existing proportions of the population there already were. The 1965 Act, however, set an annual limit to no more than twenty thousand from each country, regardless of how many peoples from that country already occupied the United States. By 1968 the annual limitation to any country from the Western Hemisphere was set to one hundred and twenty thousand immigrants, and visas were given on a first come-first serve basis. The equalization of immigration policies resulted in a shift in immigration from European-Asian immigrants, to Central-South American immigrants. Immigration also doubled from 1965-1970 and then again from 1970-1990. This flux of immigrants not only changed the ethnic makeup of the United States, but with the introduction of so many to the U.S workforce it also shifted the male earnings inequalities. This prompted congress to pass the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) and the 1990 Immigra tion Act, in an attempt to stabilize the influx and the economy.

Entrepreneurial Strategy Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Entrepreneurial Strategy - Term Paper Example According to Amit, Brigham and Markman â€Å"entrepreneurial strategies let people to be innovative, creative and responsible for decisions they make† (Meyer & Heppard, 2000).As a result of pursuing entrepreneurial strategies, companies put themselves in a situation to frequently and systematically recognize and exploit entrepreneurial opportunities.Enterpreneurial strategy involves a persistent, managerially sanctioned pattern of innovation related activities and resource allocations that compose a component of the company’s inclusive corporate strategy (Russell, page 640). This thesis will dwell majorly on entrepreneurial strategy concerning its importance/significance, opportunity recognition; .Current theories on economic literature explain strategy adoption according to forces of the competitive environment. Importance of Entrepreneurial Strategies Designing of business plan An entrepreneurial company develops innovations slowly.Explotation tends to force out explo ration and the company hits a performance crisis. Small companies have to balance exploration and exploitation. At some point in small companies at the start of the lifecycle design and innovation capability gets relegated in order to bring in the profits from the idea on which the firm was founded. Successfully spotting change factors, assessing their significance, reacting and adapting creates long term values. This can only be achieved by having a entrepreneurial strategy. Innovation The global environment moves faster all the time, innovation and its partner change are requirements for survival and success. Innovation often the foundation of creations is vital for any company to compete effectively in the twenty first century. Building on the importance of entrepreneurial action, Smith and DiGregorio explain that the fundamental nature of entrepreneurialship is newness, new resources, new clients, new markets, new combination of existing resources and clients. They put forward t hat equilibrating actions are based on both existing and related resources that modify existing knowledge about markets. In dissimilarity disequilibrating consequences are based on both existing but unrelated resources that are incompatible with existing mental methods. Execution of corporate entrepreneurship strategies is important and can play a major role in the success of efforts to produce innovation in companies. The development of a new proposal requires the recombination of existing knowledge and its extensions (Bettis & Hitt, 1995). Creating new businesses requires new knowledge which is necessary because new businesses are based on technologies that differ from currently employed companies. These new businesses function in new markets, making it a necessity for the company to develop knowledge of how to use new technology and compete effectively in the new market. Their work explains the inertia that sometimes occurs with larger successful companies. Many companies are usi ng alliances and networks to acquire knowledge that is critical for innovation and implementation. Entrepreneurial Resources Entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial companies identify and exploit opportunities that competitors have not discovered or underexploited. An appropriate location of resources is needed to identify entrepreneurial opportunities with the utmost potential returns and to be used as a disciplined approach to exploit them (McGrath & MacMillan, 2000).The entrepreneurial s

The Age of Criminal Responsibility

The Age of Criminal Responsibility In recent years the attitude and mood towards young offenders is more server, due to a wide spread public perception of mounting youth crime, and the killing of toddler James Bulger by Jon Venables and Robert Thompson, who were only 10 years old at the time. Over the past years we are seeing more and more youths engaging in criminal behaviour, some not so serious, and a few striking cases for example, the Jamie Bulger case, and the Doncaster attacks. However only 17 percent of known offenders are aged between 10 and 17, which is surprising considering how much the media report on youth crime (Elliott, Quinn, 2009). Over the past year juvenile crime rates across the continent have remained more or less stable. However, this does not mean that the problem of youth crime is insignificant. Several countries have reported a worrying trend that more young offenders are committing more violent and serious crimes. Young people, who commit crimes at a young age start with an early criminal ca reer, are harder to reintegrate back into a normal life. This is one reason why it is necessary to discuss the problem of juvenile justice in depth (Hammarberg, 2008). There are two different trends in Europe at the current time. One is to reduce the age of criminal responsibility and to lock up more children at younger ages and for more offences. The other trend is in the spirit of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child to avoid criminalization and to seek family-based or other social alternatives to imprisonment. However in the UK theres a debate on whether or not the age of criminal responsibility should be higher, in which I argue it should. However, the age of criminal responsibility varies greatly across the world. It ranges from 6 in North Carolina or 7 in India, South Africa, Singapore and most of the United States of America, to 13 in France 16 in Portugal and 18 in Belgium. There has recently been much talk in England and Wales, where the age is now 10, about whether this should be raised. Britain and other countries set minimum ages at which a child or young person are allowed to make decisions without a adult or guardians consent for good reason. It is related to judgments about a childs intellectual, emotional and mental maturity. The position where a child has to make far-reaching decisions about their future should never be choice, children need appropriate adult support, guidance and, in some cases, veto. Adults take responsibility for children in decision making as it is seen that children cannot make informed choices and do not have the capacity to do it themselves. The United Nations believe that the same principles should be applied to the age of criminal responsibility (Guardian). The age of criminal responsibility is the age at which it is possible to be charged with a crime and put on trial. (REFERENCE) The UN Committee suggested that twelve is a too low number on the rights of a child and has recommended that serious consideration to be given to rising th e age of criminal responsibility throughout the areas in the UK It is difficult to understand and defend the UK and prevailing practices in Europe for being so out on line. Other methods needs to be thoroughly explored when it comes to ensuring that children take responsibility for their own actions, by drawing what the UN Committee have commended by the positive lessons from reparation, referral orders and other restorative justice schemes for offenders. It might also be an area where listening to children could pay dividends (Broadbridge, 2009). In 1985 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Beijing Rules of juvenile justice, which go further than the UN Committee on the rights of the child. The rules state that the age of criminal responsibility shall not be fixed at too low an age level, bearing in mind the facts of emotional, mental and intellectual maturity. It then goes on to argue that countries should consider whether a child can live up to the moral and psychological components of criminal responsibility and details that if the age of criminal responsibility is set too low the notion of responsibility would become meaningless. On this basis the minimum age of criminal responsibility in the UK should be 16 (guardian). It is also important to know and understand that some countries have a rule called doli incapax. It is held with an assumption that over a certain age that children can be criminally responsible, however, sufficiently mature enough for such a responsibility. If the defence team are successful then that child cannot be found guilty (Muncie, 2009). Generally speaking, there are two major issues to this debate. Firstly, at what age can you call a child grown- up enough to understand right from wrong, and the consequences of those actions? Secondly, at what age can a child comprehend and understand the criminal justice system and trail process enough to take part in it? (REFERENCE). Most European countries have a welfare based system in place to deal with young offenders as their age of criminal responsibility is mostly higher than England and Wales. The Criminal Justice Act 1998 abolished the doli incapax increased the tendency to treat children as if they were adults. Which can be seen in the James Bulger case as John Venables and Robert Thompson were tried in an adult court. Although a ten year old may understand what is right and what is wrong, they do not understand the implications of what they have done and what has to be as a consequence of those actions. Capacity and competence relate to age, understanding and maturity should be considered in any trial in which a child is a defendant (MaMahon, Payne, 2001). England has one of the highest conviction rates for young offenders; this may be due to the low age of criminal responsibility or the fact that we have a punitive state. Whereas in contrast Belgium on the other hand have a high criminal responsibilit y age with only a faction on youth offenders in custody. (NACRO, 2002) Offenders who are under the age of 18 years old are delt with differently from adults, as it is believed that children are less responsible for their actions than adults, a wish to steer children away from further involvement in crime. Sentencing young people has always posed a dilemma: should such offenders be seen as a product of their upbringing and have their problems treated, or are they to be regarded as bad, and have their actions punished? Over the past couple of decades sentencing policy has swung between two views. In 1969, the Labour Government took the approach that delinquency was a result of deprivation, which could be treated, and one of the aims of the Children and Young Persons act of that year was to decriminalise the offending of young people. The opposite approach was introduced by the conservatives which led to the UK having a high number of young people locked up than any other west European country, but reconviction rates of 75-80percent suggested that this was not benefiting the young offenders or the country as a whole. Since 1982, the philosophy behind legislation has been that the sentencing of young people should be based on the offence committed and not on the offenders personal or social circumstances, or the consequent chances of reform. (Elliott, Quinn, 2009) In law many children do not possess the emotional maturity to be held responsible for their actions. Everyone knows that children cannot always make informed choices. It is for this reason that children are not allowed to vote in many countries and cannot consent to sex or drink alcohol. It is seen that children do not have enough life experience and more importantly they do not have the same mental and emotional abilities as adults. Children are often not aware of the consequences of their actions. It is unfair to hold children accountable for these actions as even though children know the difference between right and wrong, they often do not understand the difference between various levels of wrongdoing. However you could argue that children do know right from wrong, for example. In the abduction of Jamie Bulger in 1993, Jon Venables and Robert Thompson must have known to some degree that what they did was wrong, or they would not have lied about it and tried to cover it up. Moreov er, It is important that the criminal law underlines the difference between right and wrong by punishing children and adults who commit crimes. By criminalising children it harms their development and makes the situation even worse. Labelling a child as criminal at a very young age is less likely to lead to a better understanding of what is right and what is wrong. If the child does not understand the wrongfulness of what they have done, they may feel unjustly treated by society and rebel against them accepting the label in which society has given them, and also feel bitter towards society as a whole. The people who surround the child are more likely to be treated worse such as parents and teachers which inevitably separate them from society.In addition to this, those who are sent to prison or young offender institutes get cut off from their family and friends and can develop friendships with other criminals, they can also learn more knowledge about committing crimes before they went into prison, therefore, never really breaking free from the life of crime. All of these reactions are likely to make the childs situation worse and increase the chance of future criminal behaviour. However criminalising children is a necessary step to show the child that those actions were wrong. Children that have committed crimes have often grown up in communities without a structure or control in their lives. The child may see drug-taking, domestic violence and criminal activity in their homes, and they may have often skipped school. These children need to be punished as without punishment the children will never know the cost of their own actions. The children are then less likely to commit crimes in the future as they now know that if they do something wrong a punishment will follow. In addition to this, other children will be are less likely to commit crimes if they know a punishment will follow their actions. We are not persuaded by the argument that criminalising children is the best route to rehabilitation. As the Childrens Rights Alliance for England put it, responding directly to the Ministers comment- The UK has a well-developed child welfare system that is more than capable of assessing and meeting the needs of children without them having to be charged or treated as criminals. The [JCHR] will be aware of the recent very critical joint report from eight Inspectorate and regulatory bodies into how well children are being safeguarded. Of the youth offending teams work with children in prison, the report concludes, the focus was almost exclusively upon the offending behaviour of the young people, and there was little evidence of welfare needs being considered and addressed. This should give a red signal to a government so intent on responding to children in trouble-especially the youngest ones -through the criminal justice system rather than through our child welfare system (Broadbridge, 2009). It is often said that children who commit crimes are victims of circumstance, and instead of punishing children we need to address those circumstances. Studies such as (REFERENCE) show that more often than not the most vulnerable children have grown up in poverty, and have been uncared for by their parents, often skipped school, and even abused. By sending these children to young offenders institutions, their education is harmed, and the possibility of the University of Crime, other measures should be considered. For example, in Norway, social authorities need to take action to secure a childs development through counselling or time spent in a special care unit. The measures that are take should depend on the childs circumstances, rather than how bad the crime was. This is more than likely to reduce the criminal behaviour of young people in the future. There could be issues to do with class in the mix here. Rich children are less likely to be criminalised as their parents will be abl e to afford better lawyers which will be able to deal with the situation better. However people argue that a child is more at risk if they do not receive a criminal punishment. Not all punishments are retributive; rehabilitation can be combined with the education and training that the child will receive in prison in order to integrate the child back into society. If these sanctions were not in place, it would be more difficulty for younger children to resist the temptation of assisting older criminals. It is seen that children cannot have a fair trial. Many children often struggle to understand the trial process, which can be stressful and also have technical problems. Given the seriousness of being found guilty, it is only fair and important that people do have a fair trial and punishment is given if found guilty. It is more than likely that children do not have the concentration to follow evidence properly, therefore they may not be able to give fluent instructions to their lawyers and are misunderstood. This is a considerable injustice to the child/ children that are on trial, as if they do not understand, or potentially intimidated by the foreign surroundings and language they are not familiar with, then a grave injustice can occur. For example, in the Jamie Bulger case, thoroughout the trail process it was noted that the John Venables and Robert Thompson looked bored and bewildered by the whole process. It is argued that it is possible to make the system work for children. Aus tralia, Singapore and the USA and many other countries have special courts for offenders under the age of 18.The design of the courts are simpler and designed to be less intimidating for a child, which allows them to be able to follow the criminal process more clearly. As long as the safeguards are in place to protect young people, it is possible for a child to have a fair trial, as long as that child is not tried in an adult court. Societies understanding of childhood do not arise because of some innate nature of children childs rights. In particular, childrens competence, to what extent a child a child can assert their legal rights and to what extent do adults interpret a childs competence, with this political question proves the rights and policies for the child. The history of juvenile history reflects the influential portrayals of perceived child competence. The origins of juvenile justice along the welfare approach are based upon the belief that childrens incompetence and lack of criminal responsibility. This foundation lends itself to broad state authority to intervene in childrens lives, which in reality has often proven disastrous for children. In response to these problems, a shift in juvenile justice occurred towards the justice approach, which inevitably constructed a childhood based around the notion that children did have the mental capacity and competence to understand and have criminal responsibility The MACR notes the tipping point among tipping notions about childhood; competencies; liberty and protection rights; and the welfare justice continuum. However in the justice approach the notion of responsibility often, if not always, serves as a trap door rather than a safeguard, in which it was originally intended. Instead of ensuring freedom for the state intrusion, its meaning can become distorted and may legitimise social control over children whose true responsibility is questionable. The effects of moral condemnation and punishment follow even where underlying moral responsibility is missing. At the cost of individual liberly, moral legitimacy, and justice, the publics conscience is relieved and authorities effective social control is consolidated. Paradoxically, the welfare approach may appeal to different concepts of childrens rights, but neither communicates a clear role for society at large, and bother bring the weight of problems down upon individual children and families. Such inherent flaws leave both the justice approach and the welfare approach as problematic models. We also note, as did the UN Committee, that the Government has abolished the common law principle of doli incapax (the rebuttable presumption that children aged 10-13 years are incapable of criminal intent). The effect of this has been described as follows.This means that a 10 year old child, till in primary school is presumed to be as criminally responsible as a fully mature adult. This surely cannot be right. In the light of the removal of this safeguard, we recommend that the government review the effects of the low age of criminal responsibility on children and on crime. The criminalisation of young children has to be justified by very convincing evidence- it is not sufficient to assert that it is the best, or the only way to diverting them from a future of crime.

Man Against God in Nathaniel Hawthornes Rappaccinis Daughter Essay

Man Against God in Nathaniel Hawthorne's Rappaccini's Daughter In the introduction of the story, Nathaniel Hawthorne describes himself as a writer trapped between two worlds.   His alias, Aubepine, presents abstract concepts that would challenge the simple mind, but compensates for this by designing a dual meaning.   His works contain the literal meaning, and the implicated meaning.   Often, he would have to sacrifice his initial concept by injecting humor or other banal dimensions to the story in order to satisfy the lesser audience.   In this story, a young man from Southern Italy becomes implicated in a scientist's bizarre practice.   Rappaccini sacrifices his daughter's life in the name of science.   His means would resemble black magic in a different timeframe, which trespass the boundaries that man is ideally confined to.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Beatrice is the unfortunate and unwilling subject of her father's experiment.   The daughter's name is an allusion to Dante's guide in Heaven, and his wife in real life.   In the prelapsarian part of this story, the woman grows to know Giovanni ...

Employment Law Midterm

Employment Law Midterm 1. DePeters, Co. is sued for sex discrimination on the grounds that too few women are hired because fewer women than men achieve passing scores on a required manual dexterity and physical strength test. DePeters, Co. offers in its defense that even though fewer women score high enough on the test, a greater percentage of the passing women are hired. The company maintains that, as a result, the percentage of women in the workforce mirrors the percentage of available women in the labor pool. A group of women who took the test and failed file suit.Explain the basis for the cause of action, and analyze the merits of the cause of action, employer defenses, and likely outcome. Support your response with applicable law. (Chapter 6) The women would file suit, alleging a violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, alleging that the test has a disparate impact upon women. Even though a greater percentage of the passing women are hired, the employer's process of arriving at the bottom-line figures should be scrutinized for disparate impact. This situation is similar to the case of  Connecticut v.Teal, 457 U. S. 440  (1982), in which the Supreme Court held that the â€Å"bottom-line† result does not preclude employees from establishing a prima facie case, nor does it provide the employer with a defense. Although the percentage of the women in the workforce mirrors the percentage of available women in the labor pool, the test still results in fewer women passing it than men. Therefore, the test has a disparate impact upon women. The employer's defense to this suit would be that passing the test is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ).DePeters would argue that the job required manual dexterity and physical strength similar to that which is tested. If they were able to show that passing the test was reasonably necessary to their particular business, they may have a valid defense against the claim. The burden of proof woul d be on DePeters to show the similarity between the positions and the test, and that the dexterity and strength were bona fide occupational qualifications. If they were unable to meet that burden, the women would likely be successful in their claim. 2. Shaun, a woman of Hispanic origin, waits tables at Mongomey's Restaurant.Phil, an African-American local businessman who frequently brings clients to Mongomey's for lunch, dislikes Hispanics. As a result, he lies to the owner of the restaurant and tells the owner that Shaun referred to him by an ugly racial epithet. Once this complaint is brought to Shaun's attention,  she is demoted from waitress to dishwasher. Shaun filed a Title VII claim against Phil, even though Shaun works for Mongomey's, not for Phil. Analyze the basis for the cause of action, the company exposure, steps that could have been taken by the company to reduce exposure, the outcome, and support for the outcome.Utilize applicable law in your analysis. Title VII is applied to employer-employee relationships. If a customer made it a hostile environment, then the employer would be liable towards the employee, but in this instance, the employee has sued the customer. Phil is a customer, not an owner or operator of Shaun's establishment. Title VII states that â€Å"(a) It shall be unlawful employment practice for an employer†¦ † Here, we have to stop. Phil is not an employer of Shaun and cannot be held accountable under Title VII since this encompasses employment, not general discrimination.Shaun would need to investigate local state laws and ordinances to see what action she could take against Phil. Most likely, she has a slander charge against Phil rather than any kind of Title VII ruling. Though Phil brings clients to this restaurant frequently, this by no means makes him an employer of Shaun. That would make an unreasonable burden on everyone who encounters a waiter or waitress since the customers could now be considered that perso n's employer. Phil does not pay employment taxes for Shaun nor places her on his payroll, and any tips he has left have been for her services and do not constitute any kind of salary.Also, Phil's office may contain less than 15 employees and not even under the realm of Title VII. No, Shaun needs to chase her employer, not Phil, the customer. Again, Shaun should investigate local ordinances and state laws to see what is out there to use against Phil. 3. Pugh worked for See's Candies, Inc. for 32 years. He had started out as a dishwasher, worked his way up to vice president of production, and was also on the Board of Directors. When he was hired, he was told by the president and general manager, â€Å"If you are loyal and do a good job, your future is secure.   The president had a policy of only terminating employees for good cause, and that policy was continued by his successor. During the entire period of Pugh's employment, his performance had never been formally evaluated or cri ticized, and  he was never denied a raise or bonus. After the company had set sales records for the Christmas and Valentine's Day seasons, Pugh was called into the president's office and told that he was fired. He was not given a reason for his discharge, but he suspects that he was fired because he objected to the  sweetheart  relationship that the company had with the union representing its workers.Does Pugh have a cause of action for wrongful discharge? If so, what could the company have done to minimize exposure? The court held that Pugh had stated a cause of action for wrongful discharge under an implied contract. The president's statement and the policy of discharging only for good cause created a contract offer that he accepted by continuing his employment with See's. One of the exceptions to at-will-employment is an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing. This covenant is an implied contractual obligation to act in good faith in the fulfillment of each party's contractual duties.Under this exception, both employer and employee enter into a contractual relationship in which the particulars of why and when an employee can be terminated  are not specifically addressed in the agreement. When Pugh was hired, he was told that if he does a good job, his future is secure. Pugh could argue that he understood this statement as a promise by the company to continue employing him as long as he remained a good performer. The next factor to consider is the company's policy for termination. The company appears to have a very specific and well understood policy  that states that it will only terminate employees for good cause.Although this policy may not be in writing in an employee handbook, Pugh could argue that this policy is implied and relates to all employment relationships, including his own. Given these facts, it appears that Pugh could prove that his termination was not in compliance with the company's policy for terminations. Since the comp any would not give him a reason for his discharge, this further proves that he most likely was not terminated for good cause. Also, since Pugh's performance had never been evaluated or criticized in 32 years, it does not appear that the  company could prove that he was terminated due to poor performance.

American Literature Essay

When the English preacher and writer Sidney Smith asked in 1820, â€Å"In the four quarters of the globe, who reads an American book? † little did he suspect that less than two hundred years later the answer in literate quarters would be â€Å"just about everyone. † Indeed, just a few years after Smith posed his inflammatory question, the American writer Samuel Knapp would begin to assemble one of the first histories of American literature as part of a lecture series that he was giving. The course materials offered by American Passages continue in the tradition begun by Knapp in 1829. One goal of this Study Guide is to help you learn to be a literary historian: that is, to introduce you to American literature as it has evolved over time and to stimulate you to make connections between and among texts. Like a literary historian, when you make these connections you are telling a story: the story of how American literature came into being. This Overview outlines four paths (there are many others) by which you can narrate the story of American literature: one based on literary movements and historical change, one based on the American Passages Overview Questions, one based on Contexts, and one based on multiculturalism. TELLING THE STORY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE Literary Movements and Historical Change American Passages is organized around sixteen literary movements or â€Å"units. † A literary movement centers around a group of authors that share certain stylistic and thematic concerns. Each unit includes ten authors that are represented either in The Norton Anthology of American Literature or in the Online Archive. Two to four of these authors are discussed in the video, which calls attention to important historical and cultural influences on these authors, defines a genre that they share, and proposes some key thematic parallels. Tracking literary movements can help you see how American literature has changed and evolved over time. In general, people think about literary movements as reacting against earlier modes of writing and earlier movements. For T E L L I N G T H E S T O R Y O F A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E 3 example, just as modernism (Units 10–13) is often seen as a response to realism and the Gilded Age (Unit 9), so Romanticism is seen as a response to the Enlightenment (Unit 4). Most of the units focus on one era (see the chart below), but they will often include relevant authors from other eras to help draw out the connections and differences. (Note: The movements in parentheses are not limited to authors/works from the era in question, but they do cover some material from it. ) Century Fifteenth– Seventeenth Eighteenth Era Renaissance American Passages Literary Movements. (1: Native Voices) 2: Exploring Borderlands 3: Utopian Promise (3: Utopian Promise) 4: Spirit of Nationalism (7: Slavery and Freedom) 4: Spirit of Nationalism 5: Masculine Heroes 6: Gothic Undercurrents 7: Slavery and Freedom (1: Native Voices) 6: Gothic Undercurrents 8: Regional Realism 9: Social Realism (1: Native Voices) 10: Rhythms in Poetry 11: Modernist Portraits 12: Migrant Struggle 13: Southern Renaissance 1: Native Voices 2: Exploring Borderlands 12: Migrant Struggle 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity Enlightenment Nineteenth Romanticist Nineteenth Realist Twentieth Modernist Twentieth Postmodernist Each unit contains a timeline of historical events along with the dates of key literary texts by the movement’s authors. These timelines are designed to help you make connections between and among the movements, eras, and authors covered in each unit. 4 W H AT I S A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E ? Overview Questions The Overview Questions at the start of each unit are tailored from the five American Passages Overview Questions that follow. They are meant to help you focus your viewing and reading and participate in discussion afterward. 1. What is an American? How does literature create conceptions of the American experience and American identity? This two-part question should trigger discussion about issues such as, Who belongs to America? When and how does one become an American? How has the search for identity among American writers changed over time? It can also encourage discussion about the ways in which immigration, colonization, conquest, youth, race, class, and gender affect national identity. 2. What is American literature? What are the distinctive voices and styles in American literature? How do social and political issues influence the American canon? This multi-part question should instigate discussion about the aesthetics and reception of American literature. What is a masterpiece? When is something considered literature, and how is this category culturally and historically dependent? How has the canon of American literature changed and why? How have American writers used language to create art and meaning? What does literature do? This question can also raise the issue of American exceptionalism: Is American literature different from the literature of other nations? 3. How do place and time shape the authors’ works and our understanding of them? This question addresses America as a location and the many ways in which place impacts American literature’s form and content. It can provoke discussion about how regionalism, geography, immigration, the frontier, and borders impact American literature, as well as the role of the vernacular in indicating place. 4. What characteristics of a literary work have made it influential over time? This question can be used to spark discussion about the evolving impact of various pieces of American literature and about how American writers used language both to create art and respond to and call for change. What is the individual’s responsibility to uphold the community’s traditions, and when are individuals compelled to resist them? What is the relationship between the individual and the community? 5. How are American myths created, challenged, and re-imagined through this literature? This question returns to â€Å"What is an American? † But it poses the question at a cultural rather than individual level. What are the myths that make up American culture? What is the American Dream? What are American myths, dreams, and nightmares? How have these changed over time? T E L L I N G T H E S T O R Y O F A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E 5 Contexts Another way that connections can be made across and between authors is through the five Contexts in each unit: three longer Core Contexts and two shorter Extended Contexts. The goal of the Contexts is both to help you read American literature in its cultural background and to teach you close-reading skills. Each Context consists of a brief narrative about an event, trend, or idea that had particular resonance for the writers in the unit as well as Americans of their era; questions that connect the Context to the authors in the unit; and a list of related texts and images in the Online Archive. Examples of Contexts include discussions of the concept of the Apocalypse (3: â€Å"Utopian Visions†), the sublime (4: â€Å"Spirit of Nationalism†), and baseball (14: â€Å"Becoming Visible†). The Contexts can be used in conjunction with an author or as stand-alone activities. The Slide Show Tool on the Web site is ideal for doing assignments that draw connections between archive items from a Context and a text you have read. And you can create your own contexts and activities using the Slide Show Tool: these materials can then be e-mailed, viewed online, projected, or printed out on overhead transparencies. Multiculturalism In the past twenty years, the field of American literature has undergone a radical transformation. Just as the mainstream public has begun to understand America as more diverse, so, too, have scholars moved to integrate more texts by women and ethnic minorities into the standard canon of literature taught and studied. These changes can be both exhilarating and disconcerting, as the breadth of American literature appears to be almost limitless. Each of the videos and units has been carefully balanced to pair canonical and noncanonical voices. You may find it helpful, however, to trace the development of American literature according to the rise of different ethnic and minority literatures. The following chart is designed to highlight which literatures are represented in the videos and the units. As the chart indicates, we have set different multicultural literatures in dialogue with one another. Literature African American literature Video Representation. 7: Slavery and Freedom 8: Regional Realism 10: Rhythms in Poetry 13: Southern Renaissance 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation Study Guide Representation 4: Spirit of Nationalism 5: Masculine Heroes 7: Slavery and Freedom 8: Regional Realism 9: Social Realism 10: Rhythms in Poetry 11: Modernist Portraits 13: Southern Renaissance 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity 6 W H AT I S A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E ? Native American literature 1: Native Voices 5: Masculine Heroes 14: Becoming Visible. 1: Native Voices 2: Exploring Borderlands 3: Utopian Promise 4: Spirit of Nationalism 5: Masculine Heroes 7: Slavery and Freedom 8: Regional Realism 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity 2: Exploring Borderlands 5: Masculine Heroes 10: Rhythms in Poetry 12: Migrant Struggle 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity 9: Social Realism 12: Migrant Struggle 16: Search for Identity 9: Social Realism 11: Modernist Portraits 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity 1: Native Voices 2: Exploring Borderlands 3: Utopian Promise 4: Spirit of Nationalism 5: Masculine Heroes 6: Gothic Undercurrents 7: Slavery and Freedom 8: Regional Realism 9: Social Realism 10: Rhythms in Poetry 11: Modernist Portraits 12: Migrant Struggle 13: Southern Renaissance 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity 2: Exploring Borderlands 5: Masculine Heroes 10: Rhythms in Poetry 11: Modernist Portraits 12: Migrant Struggle 13: Southern Renaissance 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity Latino literature 2: Exploring Borderlands 10: Rhythms in Poetry 12: Migrant Struggle 16: Search for Identity Asian American literature 12: Migrant Struggle 16: Search for Identity Jewish American 9: Social Realism literature 11: Modernist Portraits 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity Women’s literature 1: Native Voices 2: Exploring Borderlands 3: Utopian Promise 6: Gothic Undercurrents 7: Slavery and Freedom 8: Regional Realism 9: Social Realism 11: Modernist Portraits 12: Migrant Struggle 13: Southern Renaissance 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity Gay and lesbian literature 2: Exploring Borderlands 5: Masculine Heroes 10: Rhythms in Poetry 11: Modernist Portraits 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity T E L L I N G T H E S T O R Y O F A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E 7 Literature cont’d Working-class literature Video Representation 2: Exploring Borderlands 4: Spirit of Nationalism 5: Masculine Heroes 7: Slavery and Freedom 9: Social Realism 12: Migrant Struggle 16: Search for Identity Study Guide Representation 2: Exploring Borderlands 4: Spirit of Nationalism 5: Masculine Heroes 7: Slavery and Freedom 9: Social Realism 10: Rhythms in Poetry 12: Migrant Struggle 14: Becoming Visible 15: Poetry of Liberation 16: Search for Identity LITERATURE IN ITS CULTURAL CONTEXT When you study American literature in its cultural context, you enter a multidisciplined and multi-voiced conversation where scholars and critics in different fields examine the same topic but ask very different questions about it. For example, how might a literary critic’s understanding of nineteenthcentury American culture compare to that of a historian of the same era? How can an art historian’s understanding of popular visual metaphors enrich our readings of literature? The materials presented in this section of the Study Guide aim to help you enter that conversation. Below are some suggestions on how to begin. Deep in the heart of the Vatican Museum is an exquisite marble statue from first- or second-century Rome. Over seven feet high, the statue depicts a scene from Virgil’s Aeneid in which Laocoon and his sons are punished for warning the Trojans about the Trojan horse. Their bodies are entwined with large, devouring serpents, and Laocoon’s face is turned upward in a dizzying portrait of anguish, his muscles rippling and bending beneath the snake’s strong coils. The emotion in the statue captured the heart and eye of critic Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, who used the work as the starting point for his seminal essay on the relationship between literature and art, â€Å"Laocoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry. † For Lessing, one of the most common errors that students of culture can make is to assume that all aspects of culture develop in tandem with one another. As Lessing points out, each art has its own strengths. For example, literature works well with notions of time and story, and thus is more flexible than visual art in terms of imaginative freedom, whereas painting is a visual medium that can reach greater beauty, although it is static. For Lessing, the mixing of these two modes (temporal and spatial) carries great risk along with rewards. As you study literature in conjunction with any of the fine arts, you may find it helpful to ask whether you agree with Lessing that literature is primarily a temporal art. Consider too the particular 8 W H AT I S A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E ? strengths of the media discussed below. What do they offer that may not be available to writers? What modes do they use that complement our understanding of the literary arts? Fine Arts Albrecht Durer created some of the most disturbing drawings known to humans: they are rife with images of death, the end of the world, and dark creatures that inhabit hell. Images such as The Last Judgement (below) can be found in the Online Archive. In Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), a devout Christian knight is taunted by the Devil and Death, who gleefully shakes a quickly depleting hourglass, mocking the soldier with the passing of time. Perhaps the tension and anxiety in Durer’s print resonated with the American poet Randall Jarrell in his struggle with mental illness. In â€Å"The Knight, Death, and the Devil,† Jarrell opens with a description of the scene: Cowhorn-crowned, shockheaded, cornshucked-bearded, Death is a scarecrow—his death’s-head a teetotum . . . Jarrell’s description is filled with adjectives in much the same way that the print is crowded with detail. The poem is an instance of what critics call ekphrasis: the verbal description of a work of visual art, usually of a painting, photograph, or sculpture but sometimes of an urn, tapestry, or quilt. Ekphrasis attempts to bridge the gap between the verbal and the visual arts. Artists and writers have always influenced one another: sometimes directly as in the case of Durer’s drawing and Jarrell’s poem, and other times indirectly. The Study Guide will help you navigate through these webs of influence. For example, Unit 5 will introduce you to the Hudson River [7995] Albrecht Durer, The Last School, the great American landscape painters Judgement (1510), courtesy of the of the nineteenth century. In the Context focusprint collection of Connecticut ing on these artists, you will learn of the interCollege, New London. connectedness of their visual motifs. In Unit 11, William Carlos Williams, whose poems â€Å"The Dance† and â€Å"Landscape with the Fall of Icarus† were inspired by two paintings by Breughel, will draw your attention to the use of ekphrasis. Williams’s work is a significant example of how multiple traditions in art can influence a writer: in addition to his interest in European art, Williams imitated Chinese landscapes and poetic forms. When you encounter works of fine art, such as paintings, photographs, or sculpture, in the Online Archive or the Study Guide, you may find two tools used by art historians helpful: formal analysis and iconography. Formal L I T E R AT U R E I N I T S C U LT U R A L C O N T E X T 9 [3694] Thomas Cole, The Falls of Kaaterskill (1826), courtesy of the Warner Collection of the Gulf States Paper Corporation, Tuscaloosa, Alabama. analysis, like close readings of poems, seeks to describe the nature of the object without reference to the context in which it was created. A formal analysis addresses such questions as Where does the central interest in the work lie? How is the work composed and with what materials? How is lighting or shading used? What does the scene depict? What allusions (mythological, religious, artistic) are found in the work? Once you have described the work of art using formal analysis, you may want to extend your reading by calling attention to the cultural climate in which the work was produced. This is called an iconographic reading. Here the Context sections of the Study Guide will be useful. You may notice, for example, a number of nineteenth-century paintings of ships in the Online Archive. One of the Contexts for Unit 6 argues that these ships can be read as symbols for nineteenth-century America, where it was common to refer to the nation as a â€Å"ship of state. † The glowing light or wrecked hulls in the paintings reflect the artists’ alternating optimism and pessimism about where the young country was headed. Below are two possible readings of Thomas Cole’s painting The Falls of Kaaterskill that employ the tools of formal analysis and iconography. W R I T E R A : F O R M A L A N A L Y S I S In this painting by Hudson River School artist Thomas Cole, the falls that give the painting its name grab our attention. The shock of the white falls against the concentrated brightness of the rocks ensures that the waterfall will be the focus of the work. Even amidst this brightness, however, there is darkness and mystery in the painting, where the falls emerge out of a dark quarry and crash down onto broken tree limbs and staggered rocks. The descent is neither peaceful nor pastoral, unlike the presentation of nature in Cole’s other works, such as the Oxbow. The enormity of the falls compared to the lone human figure that perches above them also adds to the sense of power the falls embody. Barely recognizable as human because it is so minute, the figure still pushes forward as if to embrace the cascade of the water in a painting that explores the tension between the individual and the power of nature. W R I T E R B : I C O N O G R A P H Y I agree with Writer A that this painting is all about the power of nature, but I would argue that it is about a particular kind of power: one that nineteenthcentury thinkers called the â€Å"sublime. † Cole’s portrait of the falls is particularly indebted to the aesthetic ideas formulated by Edmund Burke in the eighteenth century. Burke was interested in categorizing aesthetic responses, and he distinguished the â€Å"sublime† from the â€Å"beautiful. † While the beautiful is calm and harmonious, the sublime is majestic, wild, and even savage. While viewers are soothed by the beautiful, they are overwhelmed, awestruck, and sometimes terrified by the sublime. Often associated with huge, overpowering natural 10 W H AT I S A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E ? phenomena like mountains, waterfalls, or thunderstorms, the â€Å"delightful terror† inspired by sublime visions was supposed to both remind viewers of their own insignificance in the face of nature and divinity and inspire them with a sense of transcendence. Here the miniature figure is the object of our gaze even as he is obliterated by the grandeur of the water. During the nineteenth century, tourists often visited locales such as the Kaaterskill Falls in order to experience the â€Å"delightful terror† that they brought. This experience is also echoed in Ralph Waldo Emerson’s essay â€Å"Nature,† in which he writes of his desire to become a â€Å"transparent eyeball† that will be able to absorb the oversoul that surrounds him. The power that nature holds here is that of the divine: nature is one way we can experience higher realms. How do these readings differ? Which do you find more compelling and why? What uses can you see for formal analysis or iconographic readings? When might you choose one of these strategies over the other? History As historian Ray Kierstead has pointed out, history is not just â€Å"one damn thing after another†: rather, history is a way of telling stories about time or, some might say, making an argument about time. The Greek historian Herodotus is often called the father of history in the western world, as he was one of the first historians to notice patterns in world events. Herodotus saw that the course of empires followed a cyclical pattern of rise and fall: as one empire reaches its peak and self-destructs out of hubris (excessive pride), a new empire or new nations will be born to take its place. Thomas Cole’s five-part series The Course of Empire (1833) mirrors this Herodotean notion of time as his scene moves from savage, to pastoral, to consummation, to devastation, to desolation. This vision of time has been tremendously influential in literature: whenever you read a work written in the pastoral mode (literature that looks back with nostalgia to an era of rural life, lost simplicity, and a time when nature and culture were one), ask yourself whether there is an implicit optimism or pessimism about what follows this lost rural ideal. For example, in Herman Melville’s South Sea novel Typee, we find the narrator in a Tahitian village. He seeks to determine if he has entered a pastoral or savage setting: is he surrounded by savages, or is he plunged in a pastoral bliss? Implicit in both is a suggestion that there are earlier forms of civilization than the United States that the narrator has left behind. Any structural analysis of a work of literature (an analysis that pays attention to how a work is ordered) would do well to consider what notions of history are embedded within. In addition to the structural significance of history, a dialogue between history and literature is crucial because much of the early literature of the United States can also be categorized as historical documents. It is helpful, therefore, to understand the genres of history. Like literature, history is comprised of different genres, or modes. Historian Elizabeth Boone defines the main traditional genres of history as res gestae, geographical, and annals. Res gestae, or â€Å"deeds done,† organizes history through a list of accomplishments. This was a popu- L I T E R AT U R E I N I T S C U LT U R A L C O N T E X T 11 lar form of history for the ancient Greeks and Romans; for example, the autobiography of Julius Caesar chronicles his deeds, narrated in the third person. When Hernan Cortes and other explorers wrote accounts of their travels (often in the form of letters to the emperor), Caesar’s autobiography served as their model. Geographical histories use travel through space to shape the narrative: Mary Rowlandson’s captivity narrative is an example of a geographical history in that it follows her through a sequence of twenty geographic â€Å"removes† into Indian country and back. Annals, by contrast, use time as the organizing principle. Information is catalogued by year or month. Diaries and journals are a good example of this genre. These three genres can also be found in the histories of the Aztecs and Mayans of Mesoamerica and in those of the native communities of the United States and Canada. For example, the migration legend, a popular indigenous form of history, is a geographical history, whereas trickster tales often tell the early history of the world through a series of deeds. Memoirists also mix genres; for example, the first section of William Bradford’s Of Plimouth Plantation is a geographical history, whereas the second half is annals. Today the most common historical genres are intellectual history (the history of ideas), political history (the story of leaders), and diplomatic history (the history of foreign relations). To these categories we might add the newer categories of â€Å"social history† (a history of everyday life) and â€Å"gender history† (which focuses on the construction of gender roles). Finally, history is a crucial tool for understanding literature because literature is written in—and arguably often reflects—a specific historical context. Readers of literary works can deepen their understanding by drawing on the tools of history, that is, the records people leave behind: political (or literary) documents, town records, census data, newspaper stories, captivity narratives, letters, journals, diaries, and the like. Even such objects as tools, graveyards, or trading goods can tell us important information about the nature of everyday life for a community, how it worshipped or what it thought of the relationship between life and death. 12 W H AT I S A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E ? Material Culture [6332] Archibald Gunn and Richard Felton Outcault, New York Journal’s Colored Comic Supplement (1896), courtesy of the Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZC4-25531]. When you look at an object, it may call up associations from the past. For example, for the first-time viewer the clown figure in the image above may seem innocuous, yet at the end of the nineteenth century his popularity was so intense that it started a newspaper war fierce enough to spawn a whole new term for sensationalist, irresponsible journalism—â€Å"yellow journalism. † Objects such as this comic supplement constitute â€Å"material culture,† the objects of everyday life. In Material Culture Studies in America, Thomas Schlereth provides the following useful definition of material culture: Material culture can be considered to be the totality of artifacts in a culture, the vast universe of objects used by humankind to cope with the physical world, to facilitate social intercourse, to delight our fancy, and to create symbols of meaning. . . . Leland Ferguson argues that material culture includes all â€Å"the things that people leave behind . . . all of the things people make from the physical world—farm tools, ceramics, houses, furniture, toys, buttons, roads, cities. † (2) When we study material culture in conjunction with literature, we wed two notions of â€Å"culture† and explore how they relate. As critic John Storey notes, the first notion of culture is what is often called â€Å"high culture†Ã¢â‚¬â€the â€Å"general process of intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic factors†; and the second is â€Å"lived culture†Ã¢â‚¬â€the â€Å"particular way of life, whether of a people, a period or a group† (2). In a sense, material culture (as the objects of a lived culture) allows us to see how the prevailing intellectual ideas were played out in the daily lives of people in a particular era. Thus, as Schlereth explains, through studying material culture we can learn about the â€Å"belief systems—the values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions—of a particular community or society, usually across time† (3). In reading objects as embedded with meaning, we follow Schlereth’s premise that â€Å"objects made or L I T E R AT U R E I N I T S C U LT U R A L C O N T E X T 13 modified by humans, consciously or unconsciously, directly or indirectly, reflect the belief patterns of individuals who made, commissioned, purchased, or used them, and, by extension, the belief patterns of the larger society of which they are a part† (3). The study of material culture, then, can help us better understand the cultures that produced and consumed the literature we read today. Thomas Schlereth suggests a number of useful models for studying material culture; his â€Å"Art History Paradigm† is particularly noteworthy in that it will help you approach works of â€Å"high art,† such as paintings and sculptures, as well. The â€Å"Art History Paradigm† argues that the interpretive objective of examining the artifact is to â€Å"depict the historical development and intrinsic merit† of it. If you are interested in writing an â€Å"Art History Paradigm† reading of material culture, you might look at an object and ask yourself the following questions, taken from Sylvan Barnet’s Short Guide to Writing about Art. These questions apply to any art object: First, we need to know information about the artifact so we can place it in a historical context. You might ask yourself: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is my first response to the work? When and where was the work made? Where would the work originally have been seen? What purpose did the work serve? In what condition has the work survived? (Barnet 21–22) In addition, if the artifact is a drawing, painting, or advertisement, you might want to ask yourself questions such as these: 1. What is the subject matter? What (if anything) is happening? 2. If the picture is a portrait, how do the furnishings and the background and the angle of the head or the posture of the head and body (as well as the facial expression) contribute to our sense of the subject’s character? 3. If the picture is a still life, does it suggest opulence or want? 4. In a landscape, what is the relation between human beings and nature? Are the figures at ease in nature, or are they dwarfed by it? Are they one with the horizon, or (because the viewpoint is low) do they stand out against the horizon and perhaps seem in touch with the heavens, or at least with open air? If there are woods, are these woods threatening, or are they an inviting place of refuge? If there is a clearing, is the clearing a vulnerable place or is it a place of refuge from ominous woods? Do the natural objects in the landscape somehow reflect the emotions of the figures? (Barnet 22–23; for more questions, see pp. 23–24) Material culture is a rich and varied resource that ranges from kitchen utensils, to advertisements, to farming tools, to clothing. Unpacking the significance of objects that appear in the stories and poems you read may help you better understand characters and their motives. 14 W H AT I S A M E R I C A N L I T E R AT U R E ? Architecture Most of the time we read the hidden meanings of buildings without even thinking twice. Consider the buildings below: Above: [9089] Anonymous, Capitol Building at Washington, D. C. (1906), courtesy of Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress [LC-USZ62-121528]. Right: [6889] Anonymous, Facade of the Sam Wah’s Chinese Laundry (c. 1890 –1900), courtesy of the Denver Public Library. Even if we had never seen either of these buildings before, it would not take us long to determine which was a government building and which was a smalltown retail establishment. Our having seen thousands of buildings enables us to understand the purpose of a building from architectural clues. When first seeing a work of architecture, it is helpful to unpack cultural assumptions. You might ask: 1. What is the purpose of this building? Is it public or private? What activities take place within it? 2. What features of the building reflect this purpose? Which of these features are necessary and which are merely conventional? 3. What buildings or building styles does this building allude to? What values are inherent in that allusion? 4. What parts of this building are principally decorative rather than functional? What does the ornament or lack of it say about the status of the owners or the people who work there? 5. What buildings surround this building? How do they affect the way the building is entered? 6. What types of people live or work in this building? How do they interact within the space? What do these findings say about the relative social status of the occupants? How does the building design restrict or encourage that status? 7. How are people supposed to enter and move through the building? What clues does the building give as to how this movement should take place? L I T E R AT U R E I N I T S C U LT U R A L C O N T E X T 15 These questions imply two basic assumptions about architecture: (1) architecture reflects and helps establish social status and social relations; and (2) architecture i